Publications

We publish about our VR research in scientific journals,
in collaboration with Dutch and international colleagues.

Here you will find a list of articles:

2026

Kruk D, van der Stouwe ECD, Berkhof M, Veling W, Geraets CNW. Exploring treatment moderators in a randomized clinical trial of virtual reality-based vs. standard cognitive behavioral therapy for paranoia. Schizophr Res. 2026;297:651-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2026.09.012

Jeppesen UN, Vernal DL, Christensen MJ, Pinkham AE, Veling W, Hidding M, Jensen SN, Austin SF, Nordentoft M, Glenthøj LB. Potential mechanisms of change in virtual reality-based cognitive behavioural therapy and standard cognitive behavioural therapy for schizophrenia-related paranoia: A mediation analysis from the FaceYourFears trial. Schizophr Bull Open. 2026;7:sgag028. https://doi.org/10.1093/schizbullopen/sgag028

Robbemond LM, Nijland JWHM, Pardoel ZE, van Driel CMG, Veling W. A qualitative approach to applying virtual reality relaxation for patients with psychiatric problems: Focus group study with healthcare professionals. PLOS Digit Health. 2026;5:e0001525. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0001525

Robbemond LM, van Driel CMG, Scholten N, Veling W, Noordzij ML. The Impact of Self-Managed Virtual Reality Relaxation on Non-invasive Ambulatory Physiological Markers in Home-Based Psychiatric Care. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-026-09796-4

van Reekum P, van den Boogert F, de Looff P, Veling W, Jacobi C, van de Griend L, Bogaerts S, Masthoff E. Reducing aggressive behavior in forensic inpatients with virtual reality aggression prevention training-intellectual disability: a pilot study. Front Psychol. 2026;17:1792178. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1792178

Berkhof M, van der Stouwe ECD, Veling W, Geraets CNW. Tracking Symptom Change Across Therapy Sessions in Virtual Reality Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Versus Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Paranoid Ideation: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Controlled Trial. Schizophr Bull. 2026;52:sbag068. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbag068

Christensen MJ, Vernal DL, Jeppesen UN, Hjorthøj C, Mainz J, Pinkham AE, Austin SF, Veling W, Ward T, Nordentoft M, Glenthøj LB. Treatment effect modifiers of virtual reality-based versus standard cognitive behavioral therapy for paranoia in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: an exploratory moderator analysis of clinical and demographic characteristics in the FaceYourFears trial. Psychological Medicine. 2026;56:e117. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291726103870

Robbemond LM, Noordzij ML, van Driel CMG, Veling W. Physiological Responses to Virtual Reality-Based Stress Regulation and Relaxation Interventions: A Systematic Review. Stress Health. 2026;42:e70164. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.70164

2025

Jeppesen UN, Vernal DL, Due AS, Mariegaard LS, Pinkham AE, Austin SF, Vos M, Christensen MJ, Hansen NK, Smith LC, Hjorthøj C, Veling W, Nordentoft M, Glenthøj LB. Virtual reality-based versus standard cognitive behavioral therapy for paranoia in schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a randomized controlled trial. Nat Med. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-025-03880-8

Hidding M, Veling W, Pijnenborg GHM, van der Stouwe ECD. Facing your inner critic: a randomized controlled trial investigating a virtual reality intervention with and without a perspective change for excessive self-criticism. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2025;89:102053. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2025.102053

van der Stouwe ECD, Geraets CNW, Berkhof M, Hidding M, van Amstel S, van den Berg D, van Grunsven R, de Jager J, Kooijmans E, Sageot M, Staring ABP, Vos M, Zandee CER, Veling W. Virtual-reality cognitive behavior therapy versus cognitive behavior therapy for paranoid ideation: A pragmatic, single-blind, multicenter randomized clinical superiority trial. Psychological Medicine. 2025;55:e188. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291725100949

Schlesselmann AJ, Pijnenborg GHM, Nijman SA, Veling W, Huntjens RJC. Feature binding and detachment in psychosis: A virtual reality study. Schizophr Res Cogn. 2025;42:100376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scog.2025.100376

Robbemond LM, Nijland JM, Alma M, Veling W, van Driel CM. Exploring the Barriers to and Facilitators of Using Virtual Reality Relaxation for Patients With Psychiatric Problems: Qualitative Focus Group Study. J Med Internet Res. 2025;27:e65308. https://doi.org/10.2196/65308

2024

Zeka F, Clemmensen L, Valmaggia L, Veling W, Hjorthøj C, Glenthøj LB. The Effectiveness of Immersive Virtual Reality-Based Treatment for Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2024 Dec 22. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13777

Berkhof M, van der Stouwe ECD, Geraets CNW, Pot-Kolder RMCA, van der Gaag M, Veling W. Relations between changes in safety behavior, paranoid ideations, cognitive biases, and clinical characteristics of patients with a psychotic disorder over time. Schizophr Res. 2024 Oct;272:98-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2024.08.005

Berkhof M, van der Stouwe ECD, Pot-Kolder RMCA, van der Gaag M, Veling W, Geraets CNW. Exploring the role of clinical and demographic characteristics on the effects of virtual reality cognitive behavioral therapy for psychosis: A moderator analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2024 Jun 9. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13713

González Moraga FR, Enebrink P, Perrin S, Sygel K, Veling W, Wallinius M. VR-assisted aggression treatment in forensic psychiatry: a qualitative study in patients with severe mental disorders. Frontiers Psychiatry. 2024 May 16;15:1307633. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1307633

van der Stouwe ECD, Booij SH, Geraets CNW, Pot-Kolder RMCA, Kuranova A, van der Gaag M and Veling W. Daily-life stress reactivity and recovery following virtual-reality-based cognitive behavioral therapy in patients with a psychotic disorder. Frontiers Psychiatry 2024 fpsyt.2024.1360165. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1360165

Riches S, Kaleva I, Nicholson SL, Payne-Gill J, Steer N, Azevedo L, Vasile R, Rumball F, Fisher HL, Veling W & Valmaggia L. Virtual Reality Relaxation for Stress in Young Adults: A Remotely Delivered Pilot Study in Participants’ Homes. J. technol. behav. sci. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-024-00394-x

2023

Hidding M, Veling W, Pijnenborg GHM, van der Stouwe ECD. A single-session VR intervention addressing self-compassion and self-criticism with and without perspective change: Results of a randomized controlled experiment. Behav Res Ther. 2023 Dec 20;173:104466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2023.104466

Geraets CNW, Dolfijn R, Robbemond L, Scholte A, Klein Tuente K, Veling W. Virtual Reality aggression prevention training for people with mild intellectual disabilities: a feasibility study. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1080/19315864.2023.2285043

Hedström R, Wallinius M, Sygel K, Geraets CNW. Virtual reality-assisted assessment of paranoid ideation in forensic psychiatric inpatients: a mixed-methods pilot study. Frontiers Psychology. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1242243

Woicik K, Geraets CNW, Klein Tuente S, Masthoff E, Veling W. Virtual reality aggression prevention treatment in a Dutch prison-based population: a pilot study. Frontiers Psychology. 2023; Nov 14;14:1235808. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1235808

Riches S, Nicholson SL, Fialho C, Little J, Ahmed L, McIntosh H, Kaleva I, Sandford T, Cockburn R, Odoi C, Azevedo L, Vasile R, Payne-Gill J, Fisher HL, van Driel C, Veling W, Valmaggia L, Rumball F. Integrating a virtual reality relaxation clinic within acute psychiatric services: A pilot study. Psychiatry Research. 2023 Nov;329:115477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115477

Riches S, Taylor L, Jeyarajaguru P, Veling W, Valmaggia L. Virtual reality and immersive technologies to promote workplace wellbeing: a systematic review. J Ment Health. 2023 Mar 15:1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2023.2182428

Meins IA, Muijsson-Bouwman DC, Nijman SA, Greaves-Lord K, Veling W, Pijnenborg GHM, van der Stouwe ECD. VR-SOAP, a modular virtual reality treatment for improving social activities and participation of young people with psychosis: a study protocol for a single-blind multi-centre randomized controlled trial. Trials 2023; 24:278. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-023-07241-z

Nijman SA, Veling W, Timmerman ME, Pijnenborg GHM. Trajectories of Emotion Recognition Training in Virtual Reality and Predictors of Improvement for People with a Psychotic Disorder. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 2023; 26:288-299. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2022.0228

Riches S, Jeyarajaguru P, Taylor L, Fialho C, Little J, Ahmed L, O’Brien A, van Driel C, Veling W, Valmaggia L. Virtual reality relaxation for people with mental health conditions: a systematic review. Social Psychiatry an Psychiatric Epidemiology 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-022-02417-5

2022

Nijman SA, Pijnenborg GHM, Vermeer RR, Zandee CER, Zandstra DC, van der Vorm D, de Wit-de Visser AC, Meins IA, Geraets CNW, Veling W. Dynamic Interactive Social Cognition Training in Virtual Reality (DiSCoVR) versus Virtual Reality Relaxation (VRelax) for People With a Psychotic Disorder: A Single-Blind Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2022. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbac166

Van Pelt BJ, Nijman SA, Van Haren NEM, Veling W, Pijnenborg GHM, Van Balkom DC, Landlust AM, Greaves-Lord K. Dynamic Interactive Social Cognition Training in Virtual Reality (DiSCoVR) for adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A feasibility study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102003

Jeppesen UN, Due AS, Mariegaard L, Pinkham A, Vos M, Veling W, Nordentoft M, Glenthøj LB. Face Your Fears: Virtual reality-based cognitive behavioral therapy (VR-CBT) versus standard CBT for paranoid ideations in patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a randomized clinical trial. Trials. 2022 Aug 15;23(1):658. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-022-06614-0

González Moraga FR, Klein Tuente S, Perrin S, Enebrink P, Sygel K, Veling W, Wallinius M. New Developments in Virtual Reality-Assisted Treatment of Aggression in Forensic Settings: The Case of VRAPT. Frontiers Virtual Reality. 2022; 2:675004. https://doi.org/10.3389/frvir.2021.675004

Geraets CNW, Wallinius M, Sygel K. Use of Virtual Reality in Psychiatric Diagnostic Assessments: A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Psychiatry; 2022. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.828410

Review article on recent publications from 2016 that use VR as a diagnostic tool. Consistent differences were found between patient groups and controls, but this is a field where further development is needed.

2021

Veling W, Lestestuiver B, Jongma M, Hoenders HJR, van Driel CJ. Virtual Reality Relaxation for Patients With a Psychiatric Disorder: Crossover Randomized Controlled Trial. Med Internet Res; 2021. https://doi.org/10.2196/17233

First study on the effect of VR relaxation on psychiatric problems. Ten minutes of VR relaxation use has a strong positive effect on experienced stress and emotions.

Geraets CNW, van der Stouwe ECD, Pot-Kolder R, Veling W.Advances in immersive virtual reality interventions for mental disorders: A new reality? Curr Opin Psychol; 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.02.004

This article provides an overview of the latest developments in virtual reality treatments for mental health problems. New techniques are promising!

Berkhof M, van der Stouwe ECD, Lestestuiver B, van’t Hag E, van Grunsven R, de Jager J, Kooijmans E, Zandee CER, Staring ABP, Pot-Kolder RMCA, Vos M & Veling W. Virtual reality cognitive-behavioural therapy versus cognitive-behavioural therapy for paranoid delusions: a study protocol for a single-blind multi-Centre randomised controlled superiority trial. BMC Psychiatry; 2021. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-021-03473-y

This article describes the research protocol of VR-TOPIC. In this study, which started in 2019, we will investigate whether the VR-CBT treatment works faster or better than the regular CBT treatment for paranoia in people with a psychotic disorder.

Nijland JWHM, Veling W, Lestestuiver BP & Van Driel CMG. Virtual Reality Relaxation for Reducing Perceived Stress of Intensive Care Nurses During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology; 2021. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.706527

During the COVID pandemic, we used VRelax to relax nurses in the intensive care unit of the UMCG. More than 60% of nurses found VRelax helpful.

Geraets CNW, Klein Tuente S, Lestestuiver BP, van Beilen M, Nijman SA, Marsman JBC, Veling W. Facial emotion recognition in social environments: a virtual reality eye-tracking study. Internet Interventions; 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2021.100432

Emotion recognition in a VR, photo and video task are very similar. Also, people look at emotional faces of avatars in a similar way to real faces.

2020

Klein Tuente S, Bogaerts S, Bulten E, Keulen-de Vos M, de Vos M, Bokern H, van IJzendoorn S, Geraets CNW, Veling W. Virtual Reality aggression prevention therapy (VRAPT) versus waiting list control for forensic psychiatric inpatients: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9072258

Geraets CNW, Snippe E, van Beilen M, Pot-Kolder R, Wichers M, van der Gaag M, Veling W. Virtual reality based cognitive behavioral therapy for paranoia: effects on mental states and the dynamics among them. Schizophrenia Research. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2020.05.047 [PDF]

Pot-Kolder R, Veling W, Geraets CNW, Lokkerbol J, Smit F, Jongeneel A, Ising H, van der Gaag M. Cost-effectiveness of virtual reality cognitive behavioral therapy for psychosis. Journal of Medical Internet research. 2020. https://doi.org/10.2196/17098 [PDF]

Nijman SA, Veling W, Greaves-Lord K, Vos M, Zandee CER, aan het ROT M, Geraets CNW, Pijnenborg GHM. Dynamic Interactive Social Cognition Training in Virtual Reality (DiSCoVR) for People With a Psychotic Disorder: Single-Group Feasibility and Acceptability Study. JMIR Mental Health. 2020. https://doi.org/10.2196/17808 [PDF ]

2019

Nijman SA, Veling W, Greaves-Lord K, Vermeer R, Vos M, Zandee CER, Zandstra D, Geraets CNW, Pijnenborg GHM. Dynamic Interactive Social Cognition Training in Virtual Reality (DiSCoVR) for social cognition and social functioning in people with a psychotic disorder: study protocol for a multicenter randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychiatry. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2250-0

Counotte J, Bergink V, Pot-Kolder R, Drexhage HA, Hoek HW, Veling W. Inflammatory cytokines and growth factors were not associated with psychosis liability or childhood trauma. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0219139. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0219139

Geraets CNW, Veling W, Witlox M, Staring A, Matthijssen S, Cath D. Virtual reality-based cognitive behavioural therapy for patients with generalized social anxiety disorder: a pilot study. Behav Cogn Psychother. 2019;47(6):745-50. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1352465819000225

Klein Tuente S, Bogaerts S, Veling W. Hostile attribution bias and aggression in adults – a systematic review. Aggress Violent Behav. 2019;46:66-81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2019.01.009

Pot-Kolder R, Veling W, Brinkman WP, van der Gaag M. Virtual reality and psychotic disorders. In: Rizzo AS, Bouchard S, editors. Virtual Reality for Psychological and Neurocognitive Interventions. New York: Springer; 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9482-3_13

2018

Klein Tuente S, Bogaerts S, van IJzendoorn S, Veling W. Effect of virtual reality aggression prevention training for forensic psychiatric patients (VRAPT): study protocol of a multi-center RCT. BMC Psychiatry. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1830-8

Jongeneel A, Pot-Kolder R, Counotte J, van der Gaag M, Veling W. Self-esteem moderates affective and psychotic responses to social stress in psychosis: A virtual reality study. Schizophr Res. 2018;202:80-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.06.042

Pot-Kolder RMCA, Geraets CNW, Veling W, van Beilen M, Staring ABP, Gijsman HJ, Delespaul PAEG, van der Gaag M. Virtual-reality-based cognitive behavioural therapy versus waiting list control for paranoid ideation and social avoidance in patients with psychotic disorders: a single-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet Psychiatry. 2018;5(3):217-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30053-1

Pot-Kolder R, Veling W, Counotte J, van der Gaag M. Anxiety partially mediates cybersickness symptoms in immersive virtual reality environments. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2018;21(3):187-93. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2017.0082

Counotte J, Drexhage HA, Wijkhuijs JM, Pot-Kolder R, Bergink V, Hoek HW, Veling W. Th17/T regulator cell balance and NK cell numbers in relation to psychosis liability and social stress reactivity. Brain Behav Immun. 2018;69:408-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2017.12.015

Pot-Kolder R, Veling W, Counotte J, van der Gaag M. Self-reported cognitive biases moderate the associations between social stress and paranoid ideation in a virtual reality experimental study. Schizophr Bull. 2018;44(4):749-56. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx119

Geraets CNW, van Beilen M, Pot-Kolder R, Counotte J, van der Gaag M, Veling W. Social environments and interpersonal distance regulation in psychosis: A virtual reality study. Schizophr Res. 2018;192:96-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.04.034

2017

Veling W, Sjollema MJ, Brada BC. Reducing the impact of stress in patients with psychiatric disorders using swimming with wild, free dolphins in virtual reality. In: Powell W, Rizzo S, editors. Virtual Reality: Recent Advances for Health and Wellbeing. Hauppauge (NY): Nova Science Publishers; 2017.

Counotte J, Pot-Kolder R, van Roon A, Hoskam O, van der Gaag M, Veling W. High psychosis liability is associated with altered autonomic balance during exposure to virtual reality social stressors. Schizophr Res. 2017;184:14-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2016.11.025

2016

Veling W, Counotte J, Pot-Kolder R, van Os J, van der Gaag M. Childhood trauma, psychosis liability and social stress reactivity: a virtual reality study. Psychol Med. 2016;46(16):3339-48. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291716002208

Veling W, Pot-Kolder R, Counotte J, van Os J, van der Gaag M. Environmental social stress, paranoia and psychosis liability: A virtual reality study. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42(6):1363-71. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw031

Pot-Kolder R, Veling W, Geraets C, van der Gaag M. Effect of virtual reality exposure therapy on social participation in people with a psychotic disorder (VRETp): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2016;17:25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-015-1140-0

2011-2015

Pot-Kolder R, Zandee E, van der Gaag M. Virtual Reality exposure therapie bij psychose: een casus. Directieve Therapie. 2015;35(1):5-14. [link]

Isnanda RG, Brinkman WP, Veling W, van der Gaag M, Neerincx M. Controlling a stream of paranoia evoking events in a virtual reality environment. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2014;199:55-60. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-401-5-55

Veling W, Brinkman WP, Dorrestijn E, van der Gaag M. Virtual reality experiments linking social environment and psychosis: a pilot study. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2014;17(3):191-5. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0497

Veling W, Moritz S, van der Gaag M. Brave new worlds – review and update on virtual reality assessment and treatment in psychosis. Schizophr Bull. 2014;40(6):1194-7. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu125

Isnanda RG, Brinkman WP, Veling W, van der Gaag M, Neerincx M. Priming to induce paranoid thought in a non-clinical population. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2013;191:95-9. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-282-0-95

Brinkman WP, Veling W, Dorrestijn E, Sandino G, Vakili V, van der Gaag M. Virtual reality to study responses to social environmental stressors in individuals with and without psychosis. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2011;167:86-91. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-60750-766-6-86